Japanese folklore
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Written by
Roland Martin
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The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Article History
kitsune, trickster foxes from traditional Japanese folklore. They are a type of yōkai, a class of supernatural creatures with godlike powers, often equated to the English ghoul or demon. Kitsune are noted for their paranormal abilities, particularly metamorphosis. As they age, these abilities can become more powerful. Kitsune are said to live for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. They are popular in many facets of Japanese culture and are regularly depicted in visual art, in text, and at religious shrines. There are primarily two types of kitsune: mischievous and good. The latter grouping is often expanded to include a more defined spiritual hierarchy.
The kitsune figure and its prevalence in folktales likely developed from the proliferation of foxes in ancient Japan, where humans encountered the animals regularly in their daily lives. While not domesticated, foxes and humans lived in close proximity to one another, especially prior to urbanization and industrialization, when much of the population were farmers. Their sacred status may have been derived from their diet; foxes eat agricultural pests like rats and mice and thus protect rice crops. Foxes began appearing as godlike figures with magical abilities in cultural records as early as the 8th century ce, in Nihon shoki, which is one of the oldest official historical accounts of Japan. However, because foxes can also be pests themselves, stealing food and killing livestock, they also began appearing in Japanese folklore as ill-intentioned tricksters.
Good kitsune are often thought to be associated with the deity Inari, one of the chief kami (or holy spirit) in Japan’s Shintō religion. Inari is primarily known as the protector god of rice cultivation and is said to further prosperity and therefore is worshiped by merchants and farmers. In depictions the god is often flanked by servant foxes, with more than 30,000 foxes appearing in religious shrines around Japan. Some shrines can contain hundreds of foxes, often in seated positions. As the Shintō religion grew in popularity, so did the spiritual role and the accompanying magical power of these foxes. The kitsune from this period are holy messengers sent by Inari, emissaries between the earthly and celestial spheres. They deliver news and advice to pious humans. Kitsune can be harbingers of good luck, signaling an upcoming successful harvest.
In later years, the fox figure moved beyond servitude to Inari and became a god itself. One name for this type of kitsune is tenko. Tenko are kitsune that are said to be hundreds of years old and all-powerful. They live in the sky and often appear as humanlike female figures. In Edo period (also known as Tokugawa period; 1603–1867) folklore, these good foxes—called zenko as a whole—can be separated into rankings, as they are in the essay collection Kyūsensha manpitsu. In these essays, there are tenko, the highest, most righteous fox spirit, followed in descending order by kinko, ginko, kuroko, and byakko. Other texts divide zenko in different ways, however, so the hierarchy is not clearly defined in all texts on yōkai.
Beginning in the Edo period, kitsune have been more often depicted as mischievous tricksters. In Edo period literature, the most common type of kitsune are nogitsune, which roughly translates to “wild foxes.” Like their wiser, holier counterparts, the tenko, they can transform into humans. This transformation is not perfect, however, and kitsune often retain certain foxlike features. Nogitsune use their abilities to make humans seem foolish or to get revenge. In folklore, they often possess women and, while feeding off of their host’s life force, seduce men whom they wish to trick. This possession by a fox spirit is called kitsune tsuki. Some stories cite men marrying women who are possessed by mischievous kitsune. These types of tales are common throughout yōkai stories and often end in tragedy or bloodshed.
The origin of the mischievous fox in Japan may be from the Buddhist myth of yakan, which translates to “wild dogs” or jackals. They appear in Buddhist scripture as cunning shape-shifters. When Buddhism was introduced into Japan in the 6th century, the yakan’s closest proxy in the wild, and thus its stand-in, was the fox. As such, the deeds performed by evil jackals in Buddhist tales were adopted into Japanese folklore but with foxes replacing their counterparts from other parts of Asia.
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Kitsune are portrayed throughout Japanese pop culture, often appearing as powerful magical characters in anime and manga. Unlike in more traditional folk tales, these kitsune often appear more closely related to humans; their only resemblance to foxes is often their ears. Kitsune have also been referenced in pop culture globally, such as in the American television series Teen Wolf (2011–17).
Roland Martin
